Cornish Mining and The Stanneries

[Below I reproduce the page previously found at iknow-cornwall.co.uk. If anyone can find it credited and elsewhere I’ll take this down and re-link to the original.]

The organisation of Cornish mining deserves attention, as it’s rather independent development, a speculative process where the smelters with key centres in and around Penzance and Truro ruled the roost, is somewhat different than mining organisation elsewhere. Reaching back to essays by mine owners and ‘experts’ such as John Taylor the picture painted of Cornish mining in the early 19th century is that it’s organisation served the interests of both the miners and the adventurers (proprietors of the mine) – as well as various other parties involved such as land owners. Yet in an essay written in 1814 Taylor admits that “On the whole probably mining does not yield any great profit to the adventurers, but there are numerous cases of extraordinary gain, and these are probably nearly balanced by more numerous concerns in which loss is incurred, the latter however, if taken individually, being generally much less in amount than the former.”

Firstly, as D.B. Barton states in his definitive history of Cornish Tin mining (1967), there were differences in the organisation and productive results of Copper and Tin mining in Cornwall. Copper was by far the most financially rewarding metal mined in Cornwall, and unlike Tin which came under the distinct control of Stannery Law and administration, copper mines were larger, greater in number and paid greater dividend and were not governed by ancient laws, customers and regulations. The Stanneries (basically tin regions) evolved when tin mining regions in both Cornwall and Devon came under the protection of their own laws. This was as far back as the early 1300s. Four Stannery regions existed in Cornwall – Foweymore centred on the area of Bodmin Moor, Blackmoor centred on St Austel , Tywarnhaile incorporating the area from St Agnes down to Truro and Redruth and finally the united stannaries of Penwith and Kerrier covering the far west of Cornwall.

The Stannaries set up their own parliaments, created their own laws and had their own prisons at Lostwithiel (Cornwall) and Lydford (Devon). Tinners had certain freedoms, for example they were exempt from military service, market tolls and they were free to cut their own fuel in their regions. In return, all tin produced had to be smelted through a system of coinage and such centres as Penzance and Truro become key coinage centres. No tin could be sold on until it had been coined, however if smelted into smaller quantities than the regulated 3 1/2 cwt block, tin was ripe for smuggling out to ready markets in Holland and elsewhere – and certainly tinners took advantage of the fact.

The important difference then between tin and copper mining in Cornwall is to do with tin’s distinct control by the Stannary Parliaments, and indeed the power wielded by the Smelters who were essentially the only beneficiaries from taxes made on the tin industry which was actually a pretty unprofitable business for all other parities, particularly the miners. Always asked when considering Cornish mining is how it was that adventurers took up tin mining when it’s mines were not profitable – and the answer often emerges around the chance of a kind of lottery draw. Some speculators, few and far between, reaped great rewards, and it is supposed that this carrot spurred on many tin miners – as evidenced in a Cornish Miner’s response to Pitt asking the question – “For the same reason, Sir, that so many adventure in your lottery”. (in Barton 1967)

Cornwall Mining Migration & Strikes

The Coinage Laws were finally abolished in 1838, resulting in considerable effects on the Smelters who sought to maintain their control by any means against depression in the Cornish mining industry, plus increasing competition from abroad. The late 1830s into the 1840s was the key period of migration of Cornish mining families, not just to other mining centres in the UK but to Cuba, Australia and Tasmania. Advertisements were everywhere in Cornish newspapers by 1839 advertising mining positions in the New World. Emigrant ships rapidly started to sail from Cornish ports such as Penzance, St Ives, Hayle, Padstow and Fowey, many of which were head to Quebec and New York in North America.

Not all Cornish mining families could afford to migrate however, and the 1840s saw a number of major strikes and resistance in the Cornish mines. Miners at Consols in Gwennap, approximately 200 of them, marched to Carn Brea Mines in the early 1840s to encourage other miners to join them in forming a working miners union. In June 1847 a 3000 strong band of tin and copper miners gathered in Penzance and miners from St Just and east of Penzance districts assembled and marched through the streets of Penzance. They were locked out, and troops were sent for from Pendennis Castle, as well as 200 special constables.

The feared riot on this occasion did not occur, but disquiet increased amongst Cornish mining families, many of them living in utter poverty and prone to disease brought on by years of working in poorly ventilated mines, and increasingly dangerous conditions which had got worse not better after the introduction of the steam engine for pumping, winding and stamping ore. Miners were working deeper and enduring greater heat – conditions continually worsened and blasting was particularly dangerous. There were other riots, for example in the early 1840s in Redruth itself there were a number of Food and Bread riots where mining families rose up demanding fair prices at the local market in periods of extreme hardship and no work at the mines.

Socio economic commentary on Cornish Mining points to migration, overspecialisation on mining alone and Cornwall’s increasing peripheralisation on the industrial scene faced with increasing competition from Australia, Canada and elsewhere producing tin and copper more cheaply. Within the big takes are stories of stoicism, strikes, starvation, relief campaigns and the continuing hope of Cornish Mining families that mining would pick up again – a strong allegiance to one industry. The stories of mining families in Cornwall in the early 1920s are particularly horrendous. It’s a lesson for today, and a reminder that we have been here before! What receives less attention in this area is the many riots that erupted in protest. Methodist church documents cover and reflect on these uprisings fleetingly, but the history of resistance in this area perhaps needs a little more work.

St Agnes Mines

The choice of mining sites, some of which are working again with demonstrations for visitors include Wheal Luna which overlooks Trevaunance Cove and Seal Hole and Polberro near St. Agnes Head. Moving towards the south-west discover fascinating Wheal Coates, one of the most renowned of all Cornish mine sites. Copper mines include Wheal Charlotte and the Porthtowan mines of Tywarnhayle/United Hills and the Towan group. Find Wheal Kitty and Penhalls to the west of Trevaunance Cove, with Blue Hills (link to the right) at the seaward end of the nearby Trevellas Coombe via a pleasant trail through Jericho Valley. Blue Hills has been restored recently and is working again, well worth a visit, and tin giftware and jewellery is on sale.

For a real insight into ancient Cornish Tin Mining visit the superb Blue Hills Mine and Tin Streams at Trevellas Combe. They’re producing tin again here, with tin jewellery and giftware available to visitors. Blue Hills is actually several old tin mines, which were working up until 1780 on a water pump system, then later with steam power from 1810 to 1897. The history of Cornish Tin goes way back though to around 2000BC and has mostly been mined from the surface – tin streaming. Other mine remains around the Trevaunance Coombe to Trevellas Porth area of St Agnes include Gooninnis Mine (1899), Wheal Friendly (pre 1879) and Polberro Mine (by 1864) and to the east Wheal Kitty (1910).

Wheal Coats, now in the hands of the National Trust, is situated to the south west of St Agnes and is particularly striking because of it’s cliff side position. It was working in 1802, and on and off up until 1889. It was revived again from 1911-1913. There are three engine houses at this site for stamping, winding and pumping.

Blue Hills Tin Streams, Wheal Kitty, St Agnes, Cornwall, TR5 0YW. Tel: 44 (0)1872 553341.

Cornish Mining Poets & Religion

Far below, Upon the very spot the dragon rolled, Where the bold honest tinner lost and won, A mine spread out it’s vast machinery. Here engines, with their huts and smoky stacks, Cranks, wheels and rods, boilers and hissing steam, Pressed up the water from the depths below..”” (The Mine by John Harris, 1820-1884). John Harris was a tin miner at Dolcoath Mine in Camborne, Cornwall).

Nowhere better can you learn of the experiences of Cornish Miners than in their poetry and collections of the Camborne Miner John Harris (1820-1884) have thankfully been revived since the 1970s. John Harris was a staunch Methodist, and Methodism in mining communities through the 1800s was an inherent and uniquely Cornish with a particular focus on revivals.

Wesley did his tour of Cornish mines, and Cornish Methodism focused much more on religions issues than secular ones, making Cornish Methodists particularly unique as compared to Methodists elsewhere in Yorkshire and Lancashire who took up the Chartist mantle with enthusiasm. The different interpretations of Methodism say in Cornwall as compared to Yorkshire are revealing in how they permeated cultural and local life differently.